How Did The Citizens Change In The Government In World War 1

Menstruum afterwards the conclusion of World War I

Aftermath of World War I

Office of the interwar period
William Orpen'south The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors: the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in 1919
Engagement	November 1918 –
Issue	Political and social changes such every bit : Castilian flu Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) International relations (1919–1939) Revolutions of 1917–1923

The backwash of World State of war I saw desperate political, cultural, economical, and social change across Eurasia, Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, sometime countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and erstwhile ideologies took a firm agree in people's minds. Globe War I besides had the issue of bringing political transformation to well-nigh of the master parties involved in the conflict, transforming them into electoral democracies by bringing near-universal suffrage for the kickoff time in history, every bit in Germany (1919 High german federal election), Great Uk (1918 Britain general election), and Turkey (1923 Turkish general election).^{[ citation needed ]}

Blockade of Germany [edit]

Through the catamenia from the armistice on 11 November 1918 until the signing of the peace treaty with Germany on 28 June 1919, the Allies maintained the naval blockade of Germany that had begun during the war. As Germany was dependent on imports, it is estimated that 523,000 civilians had lost their lives.^[i] N. P. Howard, of the University of Sheffield, says that a further quarter of a million more died from disease or starvation in the eight-month menstruation following the determination of the conflict.^[2] The continuation of the occludent afterwards the fighting ended, as author Robert Leckie wrote in Delivered From Evil, did much to "torment the Germans ... driving them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil."^{[ commendation needed ]} The terms of the Armistice did let nutrient to be shipped into Germany, merely the Allies required that Germany provide the means (the shipping) to do so. The German language government was required to use its aureate reserves, being unable to secure a loan from the United States.^{[ citation needed ]}

Historian Emerge Marks claims that while "Allied warships remained in place against a possible resumption of hostilities, the Allies offered food and medicine later the ceasefire, but Germany refused to allow its ships to carry supplies". Further, Marks states that despite the problems facing the Allies, from the German authorities, "Centrolineal food shipments arrived in Allied ships earlier the accuse made at Versailles".^[iii] This position is also supported by Elisabeth Gläser who notes that an Allied task force, to help feed the German population, was established in early on 1919 and that past May 1919 " Germany [had] became the chief recipient of American and Centrolineal food shipments". Gläser farther claims that during the early months of 1919, while the main relief effort was being planned, French republic provided nutrient shipments to Bavaria and the Rhineland. She further claims that the German government delayed the relief effort by refusing to surrender their merchant fleet to the Allies. Finally, she concludes that "the very success of the relief effort had in effect deprived the [Allies] of a credible threat to induce Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles.^[4] However, it is also the case that for viii months following the end of hostilities, the blockade was continually in place, with some estimates that a further 100,000 casualties among German civilians due to starvation were caused, on summit of the hundreds of thousands which already had occurred. Food shipments, furthermore, had been entirely dependent on Allied goodwill, causing at least in part the postal service-hostilities irregularity.^{[5] [half-dozen]}

Paris Peace Briefing [edit]

Later the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919, betwixt Germany on the one side and France, Italy, Britain and other minor allied powers on the other, officially concluded war between those countries. Other treaties concluded the relationships of the United States and the other Central Powers. Included in the 440 manufactures of the Treaty of Versailles were the demands that Frg officially accept responsibility "for causing all the loss and damage" of the state of war and pay economical reparations. The treaty drastically limited the German military: German troops were reduced to 100,000 and the state was prevented from possessing major war machine armaments such as tanks, warships, armored vehicles and submarines.

Influenza epidemic [edit]

Historians continue to argue almost the impact the 1918 influenza pandemic had on the outcome of the state of war. It has been posited that the Primal Powers may have been exposed to the viral moving ridge before the Allies. The resulting casualties having greater effect, having been incurred during the war, equally opposed to the allies who suffered the brunt of the pandemic later the Armistice. When the extent of the epidemic was realized, the corresponding censorship programs of the Allies and Fundamental Powers limited the public's knowledge regarding the true extent of the disease. Because Spain was neutral, their media was free to report on the Flu, giving the impression that information technology began at that place. This misunderstanding led to gimmicky reports naming it the "Castilian flu." Investigative work by a British team led by virologist John Oxford of St Bartholomew'due south Hospital and the Regal London Hospital, identified a major troop staging and infirmary campsite in Étaples, France every bit almost certainly being the center of the 1918 flu pandemic. A meaning precursor virus was harbored in birds, and mutated to pigs that were kept near the forepart.^[8] The exact number of deaths is unknown but most 50 million people are estimated to have died from the flu outbreak worldwide.^{[9] [ten]} In 2005, a study found that, "The 1918 virus strain developed in birds and was like to the 'bird influenza' that in the 21st century spurred fears of another worldwide pandemic, notwithstanding proved to be a normal treatable virus that did not produce a heavy impact on the world's health."^[11]

Ethnic minorities [edit]

Discipline nationalities of the German brotherhood

The dissolution of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires created a number of new countries in eastern Europe and the Centre Due east.^[12] Some of them, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland, had substantial ethnic minorities who were sometimes not fully satisfied with the new boundaries that cut them off from fellow ethnics. For example, Czechoslovakia had Germans, Poles, Ruthenians and Ukrainians, Slovaks and Hungarians. The League of Nations sponsored various Minority Treaties in an attempt to deal with the problem, but with the pass up of the League in the 1930s, these treaties became increasingly unenforceable. One consequence of the massive redrawing of borders and the political changes in the backwash of the state of war was the large number of European refugees. These and the refugees of the Russian Civil State of war led to the creation of the Nansen passport.

Ethnic minorities made the location of the frontiers generally unstable. Where the frontiers have remained unchanged since 1918, at that place has often been the expulsion of an ethnic group, such as the Sudeten Germans. Economic and military cooperation amongst these small states was minimal, ensuring that the defeated powers of Germany and the Soviet Matrimony retained a latent capacity to dominate the region. In the immediate aftermath of the state of war, defeat drove cooperation between Frg and the Soviet Marriage but ultimately these 2 powers would compete to dominate eastern Europe.

Approximately i.five million Armenians, native inhabitants of the Armenian Highland, were exterminated in Turkey every bit a consequence of the Genocide of Armenians committed by the Young Turk Government.

Political upheavals [edit]

New nations break gratis [edit]

German and Austrian forces in 1918 defeated the Russian armies, and the new communist government in Moscow signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In that treaty, Russian federation renounced all claims to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and the territory of Congress Poland, and it was left to Germany and Austria-Hungary "to decide the future condition of these territories in agreement with their population." Subsequently, Vladimir Lenin's authorities also renounced the Partition of Poland treaty, making it possible for Poland to merits its 1772 borders. Nevertheless, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was rendered obsolete when Frg was defeated later in 1918, leaving the status of much of eastern Europe in an uncertain position.

Revolutions [edit]

A far-left and often explicitly Communist revolutionary moving ridge occurred in several European countries in 1917–1920, notably in Germany and Hungary. The single near important effect precipitated by the privations of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Germany [edit]

In Germany, there was a socialist revolution which led to the cursory institution of a number of communist political systems in (mainly urban) parts of the country, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm 2, and the creation of the Weimar Republic.

On 28 June 1919 the Weimar Republic was forced, nether threat of connected Allied advance, to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Germany viewed the one-sided treaty as a humiliation and every bit blaming it for the entire state of war. While the intent of the treaty was to assign guilt to Germany to justify fiscal reparations, the notion of blame took root every bit a political issue in German social club and was never accepted by nationalists, although information technology was argued by some, such as High german historian Fritz Fischer. The German government disseminated propaganda to further promote this idea, and funded the Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War to this end.

132 billion gold marks ($31.v billion, six.6 billion pounds) were demanded from Germany in reparations, of which only 50 billion had to be paid. In order to finance the purchases of foreign currency required to pay off the reparations, the new German language republic printed tremendous amounts of money – to disastrous consequence. Hyperinflation plagued Federal republic of germany between 1921 and 1923. In this period the worth of fiat Papiermarks with respect to the earlier article Goldmarks was reduced to ane trillionth (i million millionth) of its value.^[thirteen] In Dec 1922 the Reparations Commission alleged Germany in default, and on xi January 1923 French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr until 1925.

The treaty required Deutschland to permanently reduce the size of its regular army to 100,000 men, and destroy their tanks, air forcefulness, and U-boat fleet (her capital ships, moored at Scapa Flow, were scuttled by their crews to forestall them from falling into Allied easily).

Germany saw relatively pocket-sized amounts of territory transferred to Kingdom of denmark, Czechoslovakia, and Kingdom of belgium, a larger corporeality to France (including the temporary French occupation of the Rhineland) and the greatest portion as function of a reestablished Poland. Germany'southward overseas colonies were divided between a number of Centrolineal countries, most notably the United Kingdom in Africa, but it was the loss of the territory that composed the newly contained Shine state, including the German city of Danzig and the separation of East Prussia from the rest of Germany, that acquired the greatest outrage^{[ citation needed ]}. Nazi propaganda would feed on a general German view that the treaty was unfair – many Germans never accepted the treaty equally legitimate, and lent their political support to Adolf Hitler.^{[ citation needed ]}

Russian Empire [edit]

The Soviet Matrimony benefited from Deutschland's loss, as ane of the get-go terms of the armistice was the abrogation of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. At the time of the armistice Russia was in the grips of a civil war which left more seven one thousand thousand people expressionless and large areas of the state devastated. The nation equally a whole suffered socially and economically.

Republic of lithuania, Latvia and Estonia gained independence. They were occupied once more past the Soviet Union in 1940.

Republic of finland gained a lasting independence, though she repeatedly had to fight the Soviet Union for her borders in the Winter State of war.

Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan were established as independent states in the Caucasus region. Notwithstanding, afterward the withdrawal of the Russian Army in 1917 and during 1920 Turkish invasion of Armenia, Turkey captured the Armenian territory around Artvin, Kars, and Igdir, and these territorial losses became permanent. As result of invasions of Turkey and Russian Scarlet Regular army all three Transcaucasian countries were proclaimed every bit Soviet Republics in 1920 and over time were absorbed into the Soviet Matrimony.

Romania gained Bessarabia from Russia.

The Russian concession of Tianjin was occupied past the Chinese Beiyang authorities in 1920; in 1924 the Soviet Union renounced its claims to the district.

Austro-hungarian empire [edit]

With the state of war having turned decisively against the Primal Powers, the people of Austro-hungarian empire lost faith in their centrolineal countries, and fifty-fifty before the armistice in November, radical nationalism had already led to several declarations of independence in south-cardinal Europe later Nov 1918. As the key authorities had ceased to operate in vast areas, these regions found themselves without a government and many new groups attempted to fill the void. During this aforementioned period, the population was facing food shortages and was, for the most part, demoralized past the losses incurred during the war. Various political parties, ranging from ardent nationalists, to social democrats, to communists attempted to set governments in the names of the different nationalities. In other areas, existing nation states such equally Romania engaged regions that they considered to be theirs. These moves created de facto governments that complicated life for diplomats, idealists, and the Western allies.

The Western forces were officially supposed to occupy the old Empire, just rarely had enough troops to do so effectively. They had to bargain with local authorities who had their ain agenda to fulfill. At the peace conference in Paris the diplomats had to reconcile these authorities with the competing demands of the nationalists who had turned to them for help during the war, the strategic or political desires of the Western allies themselves, and other agendas such as a desire to implement the spirit of the Fourteen Points.

For example, in order to alive up to the ideal of cocky-determination laid out in the 14 Points, Germans, whether Austrian or German, should be able to decide their own future and regime. Nonetheless, the French particularly were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a huge security risk. Further complicating the state of affairs, delegations such as the Czechs and Slovenians fabricated stiff claims on some German language-speaking territories.

The result was treaties that compromised many ethics, offended many allies, and set up up an entirely new order in the area. Many people hoped that the new nation states would permit for a new era of prosperity and peace in the region, gratuitous from the bitter quarrelling between nationalities that had marked the preceding fifty years. This hope proved far too optimistic. Changes in territorial configuration afterward World War I included:

• Establishment of the Republic of German Austria and the Hungarian Democratic Democracy, disavowing any continuity with the empire and exiling the Habsburg family in perpetuity.
• Eventually, after 1920, the new borders of Hungary did not include approx. two-thirds of the lands of the one-time Kingdom of Hungary, including areas where the ethnic Magyars were in a bulk. The new republic of Republic of austria maintained control over most of the predominantly High german-controlled areas, only lost various other German majority lands in what was the Austrian Empire.

With the Treaty of Trianon, Kingdom of Hungary lost 72% of its territory (including Croatia) and three.3 million people of Hungarian ethnicity.

• Bohemia, Moravia, Opava Silesia and the western part of the Duchy of Cieszyn, large function of Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia formed the new Czechoslovakia.
• Galicia, the eastern office of the Duchy of Cieszyn, northern Árva Canton and northern Szepes County were transferred to Poland.
• the Southern half of the Canton of Tyrol and Trieste were granted to Italy.
• Republic of bosnia and herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, Međimurje, Dalmatia, Slovenia, Syrmia, parts of Bács-Bodrog, Baranya, Torontál and Temes Counties were joined with Serbia to class the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia.
• Transylvania, parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș and Bukovina became role of Romania.
• The Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin was ceded to the Republic of China.

These changes were recognized in, but non caused by, the Treaty of Versailles. They were after further elaborated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon.

The 1919 treaties by and large included guarantees of minority rights, but there was no enforcement machinery. The new states of eastern Europe mostly all had large indigenous minorities. Millions of Germans constitute themselves in the newly created countries as minorities. More than 2 meg indigenous Hungarians found themselves living exterior of Hungary in Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Many of these national minorities found themselves in hostile situations because the modern governments were intent on defining the national graphic symbol of the countries, oftentimes at the expense of the other nationalities. The interwar years were difficult for religious minorities in the new states built effectually ethnic nationalism. The Jews were especially distrusted because of their minority religion and distinct subculture. This was a dramatic come-down from the days of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although antisemitism had been widespread during Habsburg rule, Jews faced no official discrimination because they were, for the most part, ardent supporters of the multi-national state and the monarchy.^[14]

The economical disruption of the state of war and the end of the Austro-Hungarian customs marriage created great hardship in many areas. Although many states were ready as democracies later the war, ane by ane, with the exception of Czechoslovakia, they reverted to some class of disciplinarian dominion. Many quarreled amongst themselves just were too weak to compete effectively. After, when Germany rearmed, the nation states of s-central Europe were unable to resist its attacks, and fell under German domination to a much greater extent than had ever existed in Austro-hungarian empire.

Ottoman Empire [edit]

At the end of the war, the Allies occupied Constantinople (İstanbul) and the Ottoman authorities collapsed. The Treaty of Sèvres, designed to repair damage caused past Ottomans during the war to the winning Allies, was signed by Ottoman Empire on 10 August 1920, but was never ratified by the Sultan.

The occupation of Smyrna past Hellenic republic on 18 May 1919 triggered a nationalist motility to rescind the terms of the treaty. Turkish revolutionaries led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a successful Ottoman commander, rejected the terms enforced at Sèvres and under the guise of General Inspector of the Ottoman Army, left Istanbul for Samsun to organize the remaining Ottoman forces to resist the terms of the treaty. On the eastern front end, afterwards the invasion of Armenia in 1920 and signing of the Treaty of Kars with the Russian S.F.S.R. Turkey took over territory lost to Armenia and post-Imperial Russia.^[15]

On the western front, the growing strength of the Turkish National Motion forces led the Kingdom of Greece, with the backing of Britain, to invade deep into Anatolia in an try to bargain a accident to the revolutionaries. At the Battle of Dumlupınar, the Greek ground forces was defeated and forced into retreat, leading to the burning of Smyrna and the withdrawal of Greece from Asia Minor. With the nationalists empowered, the army marched on to reclaim Istanbul, resulting in the Chanak Crunch in which the British Prime number Government minister, David Lloyd George, was forced to resign. After Turkish resistance gained command over Anatolia and Istanbul, the Sèvres treaty was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne which formally ended all hostilities and led to the cosmos of the modern Turkish Commonwealth. As a issue, Turkey became the only ability of World State of war I to overturn the terms of its defeat, and negotiate with the Allies as an equal.^[xvi]

Lausanne Treaty formally acknowledged the new League of Nations mandates in the Center East, the cession of their territories on the Arabian Peninsula, and British sovereignty over Cyprus. The League of Nations granted Class A mandates for the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and British Mandate of Mesopotamia and Palestine, the latter comprising 2 autonomous regions: Mandate Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan. Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became function of what is today Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire became a pivotal milestone in the creation of the modern Middle East, the event of which bore witness to the creation of new conflicts and hostilities in the region.^[17]

United Kingdom [edit]

In the U.k. of Peachy Britain and Republic of ireland, funding the war had a severe economic cost. From being the world's largest overseas investor, it became 1 of its biggest debtors with interest payments forming around 40% of all government spending. Inflation more than doubled between 1914 and its meridian in 1920, while the value of the Pound Sterling (consumer expenditure^[xviii]) fell by 61.2%. State of war reparations in the form of free German coal depressed local manufacture, precipitating the 1926 United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland full general strike.

British private investments abroad were sold, raising £550 million. However, £250 one thousand thousand in new investment likewise took place during the state of war. The cyberspace fiscal loss was therefore approximately £300 million; less than ii years investment compared to the pre-state of war average rate and more than than replaced by 1928.^[xix] Material loss was "slight": the virtually significant being 40% of the British Merchant Navy sunk by German U-boats. Nearly of this was replaced in 1918 and all immediately after the state of war.^[20] The military historian Correlli Barnett has argued that "in objective truth the Great War in no way inflicted crippling economic damage on U.k." but that the war "crippled the British psychologically merely in no other way".^[21]

Less concrete changes include the growing assertiveness of Commonwealth nations. Battles such equally Gallipoli for Australia and New Zealand, and Vimy Ridge for Canada led to increased national pride and a greater reluctance to remain subordinate to Britain, leading to the growth of diplomatic autonomy in the 1920s. These battles were often decorated in propaganda in these nations every bit symbolic of their ability during the state of war. Colonies such equally the British Raj (India) and Nigeria likewise became increasingly assertive because of their participation in the state of war. The populations in these countries became increasingly enlightened of their ain ability and Britain's fragility.

Cartoon predicting the aftermath of the war by Henry J. Glintenkamp, commencement published in The Masses in 1914

In Ireland, the delay in finding a resolution to the Dwelling house Rule issue, exacerbated by the Regime's severe response to the 1916 Easter Rising and its failed endeavor to innovate conscription in Ireland in 1918, led to an increased support for separatist radicals. This led indirectly to the outbreak of the Irish War of Independence in 1919. The creation of the Irish gaelic Gratuitous State that followed this conflict in upshot represented a territorial loss for the Uk that was all just equal to the loss sustained by Germany, (and furthermore, compared to Germany, a much greater loss in terms of its ratio to the country's prewar territory). Despite this, the Irish Costless Land remained a rule within the British Empire.

United states of america [edit]

While disillusioned past the war, it having not achieved the loftier ideals promised by President Woodrow Wilson, American commercial interests did finance Europe's rebuilding and reparation efforts in Germany, at least until the onset of the Neat Low. American opinion on the propriety of providing aid to Germans and Austrians was carve up, equally evidenced by an exchange of correspondence between Edgar Gott, an executive with The Boeing Visitor and Charles Osner, chairman of the Committee for the Relief of Destitute Women and Children in Germany and Republic of austria. Gott argued that relief should first go to citizens of countries that had suffered at the hands of the Key Powers, while Osner made an entreatment for a more than universal application of humanitarian ethics.^[22] The American economic influence allowed the Great Depression to starting time a domino effect, pulling Europe in besides.

France [edit]

French cavalry entering Essen during the occupation of the Ruhr.

Alsace-Lorraine returned to French republic, the region which had been ceded to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1871 later the Franco-Prussian State of war. At the 1919 Peace Conference, Prime Government minister Georges Clemenceau'due south aim was to ensure that Germany would non seek revenge in the post-obit years. To this purpose, the chief commander of the Allied forces, Marshal Ferdinand Foch, had demanded that for the future protection of France the Rhine river should now grade the border between French republic and Deutschland. Based on history, he was convinced that Frg would again become a threat, and, on hearing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had left Germany substantially intact, he observed that "This is not Peace. Information technology is an Ceasefire for xx years."

The devastation brought upon French territory was to be indemnified by the reparations negotiated at Versailles. This financial imperative dominated France'due south foreign policy throughout the 1920s, leading to the 1923 Occupation of the Ruhr in order to strength Germany to pay. Notwithstanding, Germany was unable to pay, and obtained support from the United States. Thus, the Dawes Programme was negotiated after Prime number Government minister Raymond Poincaré'due south occupation of the Ruhr, so the Young Plan in 1929.

Besides extremely important in the War was the participation of French colonial troops (who amounted for around 10% of the total number of troops deployed by France across the war), including the Senegalese tirailleurs, and troops from Indochina, North Africa, and Madagascar. When these soldiers returned to their homelands and continued to be treated as second class citizens, many became the nuclei of pro-independence groups.

Furthermore, under the land of war declared during the hostilities, the French economy had been somewhat centralized in order to be able to shift into a "state of war economy", leading to a first alienation with classical liberalism.

Finally, the socialists' support of the National Matrimony government (including Alexandre Millerand's nomination as Minister of War) marked a shift towards the French Section of the Workers' International'south (SFIO) turn towards social democracy and participation in "conservative governments", although Léon Blum maintained a socialist rhetoric.

Women in France [edit]

"Simply with its faceless country machinery and unremitting mechanized slaughter, the war instead collapsed these old ethics"^[23] (Roberts two). When the war was over and the men returned domicile, the world was a vastly different place than it had been before the war. Many ethics and beliefs were shattered with the war. Those returning from the front lines, and even those who were on the Homefront, were left to pick upward the pieces of what was left of those ideals and behavior, and effort to rebuild them. Earlier the Great War, many idea this state of war would be a quick war, like many before had been. With new technology and weapons though, the war was at a stalemate for a large role of it, dragging what many idea would be a quick war out into a long, grueling war. With so much death and destruction done to France, information technology is not surprising when looking back that the manner of life for French citizens was forever changed.

Many citizens saw the change in culture and blamed the war for taking away the rose tinted spectacles that society had viewed things through. Many scholars and writers, such as Drieu la Rochelle, institute many ways to describe this new view on reality such every bit stripping away wearing apparel^[24] (Roberts two). This comparing of the new reality and clothing beingness stripped away also ties into the fact that gender roles inverse greatly after the state of war.

During the state of war many jobs had been left to women considering many men were fighting on the front lines. This gave women a new sense of freedom that they had not been able to feel always before. Not many women wanted to go back to how things were before the war, when they expected to stay at habitation and take care of the business firm. When the war was over many of the older generations and men wanted women to render to their previous roles.

At a time where gender roles were so heavily defined and intertwined with the civilization of many places, for French citizens viewing how many women went against said roles after World State of war one, or the Great State of war as information technology was called at the time, information technology was ghastly. While gender roles had slowly been changing over time since the Industrial Revolution gave more work options exterior of the dwelling in factories, it had never been such a quick and drastic modify as it was after World War 1. During the state of war many men went off to fight, leaving behind manufactory jobs that were commonly seen as a man's job only. These jobs had to be filled and without men there to fill up the jobs, it was women who stepped upwardly to fill the hole instead. France suffered a smashing loss of life during World State of war 1, leaving many jobs unable to be refilled even after the war.

Debates and discussions apropos gender identity and gender roles in relation to society became one of the main means to hash out the state of war and people's stances on information technology ^[25](Roberts five). The war left people struggling to grasp the new reality. There were mixed reactions to the new way of life after World War 1 and how it affected both men and women. Some people were willing to completely embrace the new standards that were emerging following the state of war, while others harshly rejected the changes, seeing the changes as summarizing all the horrors they experienced during the war. Others looked for ways to compromise between the new and old way of life, tried to combine the ethics and beliefs from before and after the state of war to find a healthy middle ground.

Discussions pertaining to women during mail service-war debates frequently split the view of women into three categories—the "modern woman," the "female parent," and the "unmarried woman" ^[26](Roberts 9). These categories broke upwardly the view of women by the roles they took on, the jobs they did, the way they acted, or by the beliefs they might agree. These categories also came to cover the views of gender roles in relation to before and afterward the war. The "mother" category relates dorsum to the part of women before the Cracking War, the woman who stayed at dwelling and took care of the household while the husband was off at piece of work. The "modern woman" relates to how many women were after the war, working jobs meant for men, engaging in sexual pleasures, and often doing things at a fast pace. The "unmarried adult female" was the eye footing betwixt the other two that were very dissimilar from one another. The "single woman" came to represent the women who would never be able to marry considering there were not enough men for every adult female to marry ^[27](Roberts 10).

Ane thing that sparked much debate in regards to the postwar adult female is fashion. During the war things like cloth material were rationed, with people being encouraged to not utilise as much fabric, so that there would be enough for the armed forces. In response to these rations, women wore shorter dresses and skirts, commonly almost knee length, or pants. This alter in dress was something that many women connected to wearable even later the war ended. It was such a desperate change to the habiliment norms for women before the state of war. This change led to some "modernistic women" to be described in harsh lights, as if wearing dresses and skirts that short showed that those women were promiscuous.

Those coming dorsum from the war, from the fighting, were very traumatized and had wanted to come back to a home that was not very changed in lodge to give themselves a sense of normalcy. When these men came back to a habitation that had changed a lot they did not know what to make of it. Gone were the times of very defined gender roles that most of society conformed to. It was often hard for these traumatized men to accept these new changes, especially the changes in how women behaved.

Italian republic [edit]

Residents of Fiume cheering D'Annunzio and his Legionari, September 1919. At the fourth dimension, Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a full population of 35,839 inhabitants.

In 1882 Italian republic joined with the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire to course the Triple Alliance. Yet, even if relations with Berlin became very friendly, the brotherhood with Vienna remained purely formal, as the Italians were peachy to acquire Trentino and Trieste, parts of the Austria-hungary populated by Italians.

During Earth State of war I Italia aligned with the Allies, instead of joining Germany and Republic of austria. This could happen since the alliance formally had only defensive prerogatives, while the Key Empires were the ones who started the offensive. With the Treaty of London, U.k. secretly offered Italy Trentino and Tyrol every bit far every bit Brenner, Trieste and Istria, all the Dalmatian coast except Fiume, total ownership of Albanian Valona and a protectorate over Albania, Antalya in Turkey and a share of the Turkish and German colonial empire, in exchange for Italy siding against the Key Empires^{[ citation needed ]}.

Later the victory, Vittorio Orlando, Italian republic'southward President of the Council of Ministers, and Sidney Sonnino, its Foreign Government minister, were sent as the Italian representatives to Paris with the aim of gaining the promised territories and as much other land as possible. In particular, there was an especially strong opinion about the status of Fiume, which they believed was rightly Italian due to Italian population, in understanding with Wilson's 14 Points, the ninth of which read:

"A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected forth clearly recognizable lines of nationality".

Nevertheless, by the stop of the state of war the Allies realized they had made contradictory agreements with other Nations, especially regarding Key Europe and the Middle-East. In the meetings of the "Big Four", in which Orlando's powers of diplomacy were inhibited by his lack of English, the Corking powers were only willing to offer Trentino to the Brenner, the Dalmatian port of Zara, the island of Lagosta and a couple of small-scale High german colonies. All other territories were promised to other nations and the swell powers were worried about Italy's imperial ambitions; Wilson, in item, was a staunch supporter of Yugoslav rights on Dalmatia against Italian republic and despite the Treaty of London which he did not recognize.^[28] Every bit a result of this, Orlando left the briefing in a rage. This simply favored Britain and France, which divided among themselves the former Ottoman and High german territories in Africa.^[29]

In Italy, the discontent was relevant: Irredentism (run across: irredentismo) claimed Fiume and Dalmatia every bit Italian lands; many felt the Country had taken office in a meaningless state of war without getting whatsoever serious benefits. This idea of a "mutilated victory" (vittoria mutilata) was the reason which led to the Impresa di Fiume ("Fiume Exploit"). On September 12, 1919, the nationalist poet Gabriele d'Annunzio led around 2,600 troops from the Imperial Italian Army (the Granatieri di Sardegna), nationalists and irredentists, into a seizure of the city, forcing the withdrawal of the inter-Allied (American, British and French) occupying forces.

The "mutilated victory" (vittoria mutilata) became an important function of Italian Fascist propaganda.

China [edit]

The Republic of China had been one of the Allies; during the state of war, they had sent thousands of labourers to French republic. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Chinese delegation called for an end to Western imperialistic institutions in China, just was rebuffed. China requested at least the formal restoration of its territory of Jiaozhou Bay, nether German colonial control as the Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory since 1898. Merely the western Allies rejected China's request, instead granting transfer to Japan of all of Frg's pre-war territory and rights in China. Afterwards, Prc did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, instead signing a separate peace treaty with Frg in 1921.

The Austro-Hungarian and German concessions in Tianjin were placed under the administration of the Chinese regime; in 1920 they occupied the Russian area also.

The western Allies' substantial accession to Nippon'southward territorial ambitions at China's expense led to the May Quaternary Motion in People's republic of china, a social and political movement that had profound influence over subsequent Chinese history. The May Quaternary Movement is often cited equally the birth of Chinese nationalism, and both the Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Political party consider the Movement to be an important menstruation in their own histories.

Japan [edit]

Because of the treaty that Japan had signed with Great Britain in 1902, Japan was one of the Allies during the war. With British assistance, Japanese forces attacked Germany'southward territories in Shandong, China, including the East Asian coaling base of the Royal German Navy. The German forces were defeated and surrendered to Japan in November 1914. The Japanese navy also succeeded in seizing several of Germany'due south island possessions in the Western Pacific: the Marianas, Carolines, and Marshall Islands.

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Japan was granted all of Germany'due south pre-war rights in Shandong province in China (despite China also existence one of the Allies during the war): outright possession of the territory of Jiaozhou Bay, and favorable commercial rights throughout the rest of the province, too every bit the Southward Seas Mandate over the High german Pacific island possessions that the Royal Japanese Navy had taken. Also, Nihon was granted a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations. However, the Western powers refused Nihon's asking for the inclusion of a "racial equality" clause equally role of the Treaty of Versailles. Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after mediation past the U.s.a. during the Washington Naval Briefing. Weihai followed in 1930.^[30]

Territorial gains and losses [edit]

A map with the post-war borders in crimson over the pre-state of war map of Europe. Notation: this map does not show the Irish Free Country.

Countries that gained or regained territory or independence subsequently World War I [edit]

• Armenia: independence from Russian Empire
• Commonwealth of australia: gained control of German language New Republic of guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Nauru
• Austria: gained territories (Őrvidék) from Republic of hungary
• Azerbaijan: independence from Russian Empire
• Belgium: gained control of Eupen-Malmedy and the African territories of Ruanda-Urundi from the German Empire
• Belarus People's Republic: gained command of several cities from the Russian Empire
• Czechoslovakia: gained territories from the Austrian Empire (Bohemia, Moravia, and role of Silesia) and Republic of hungary (mostly Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia)
• Danzig: semi-autonomous costless city with independence from the German Empire
• Denmark: gained Nordschleswig after a referendum from the German Empire
• Estonia: independence from the Russian Empire
• Finland: independence from the Russian Empire
• France: gained Alsace-Lorraine as well every bit various African colonies from the German Empire, and Middle East territories from the Ottoman Empire. The African and Eye East gains were officially League of Nations Mandates.
• Georgia: independence from the Russian Empire
• Greece: gained Western Thrace from Republic of bulgaria
• Ireland: Irish Costless State (approximately five-sixths of the isle) gained independence from the U.k. (merely still part of the British Empire)
• Italy: gained S Tyrol, Trieste, Istria peninsula and Zadar from the Austro-Hungarian Empire
• Japan: gained Jiaozhou Bay and about of Shandong from Prc and the Due south Seas Mandate (both controlled past German Empire before the war)
• Latvia: independence from the Russian Empire
• Republic of lithuania: independence from the Russian Empire
• New Zealand: gained control of German Samoa
• Poland: recreated and gained parts of the Austrian Empire, High german Empire, Russian Empire and Hungary (pocket-sized northern parts of the one-time Árva and Szepes counties)
• Portugal: gained control of the port of Kionga
• Romania: gained Transylvania, parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș from the Kingdom of Republic of hungary, Bukovina from the Austrian Empire, regained Dobruja from Bulgaria, and Bessarabia from the Russian Empire
• South Africa: gained control of Due south W Africa
• Turkey: gained control of office of the Armenian Highlands from the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Kars, while losing territory overall
• Ukraine: gained independence from the Russian Empire and recognized past Soviet Russian federation in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
• United Kingdom: gained League of Nations Mandates in Africa and the Middle E
• Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, created from the Kingdom of Serbia, Bosnia and herzegovina, Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and gained parts from Austrian Empire (part of Duchy of Carniola, Kingdom of Dalmatia) and Hungary (Muraköz, Muravidék, parts of Baranya, Bácska and Banat)

Nations that lost territory or independence after World State of war I [edit]

• Republic of austria, as the successor state of Cisleithania in the Austro-hungarian empire
• Bulgaria: lost Western Thrace to Greece also lost a part of Eastern Republic of macedonia and Western Outlands to Serbia (Yugoslavia)
• China: temporarily lost Jiaozhou Bay and about of Shandong to the Empire of Japan
• Germany, as the successor land of the German language Empire
• Hungary, as the successor country of Transleithania in the Austro-hungarian empire
• Montenegro declared spousal relationship with Serbia and after became incorporated into Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
• Russian SFSR, as the successor state of the Russian Empire
• Turkey, as the successor land of the Ottoman Empire (although it did simultaneously gain some territory from the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Kars)
• United Kingdom: lost about of Ireland as the Irish Free Country, Egypt in 1922 and Afghanistan in 1919

[edit]

The experiences of the war in the westward are normally assumed to accept led to a sort of collective national trauma afterwards for all of the participating countries. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought became what is known as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully recovered from their suffering. For the side by side few years, much of Europe mourned privately and publicly; memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns.

So many British men of marriageable historic period died or were injured that the students of one girls' schoolhouse were warned that but 10% would marry.^{[31] : 20, 245} The 1921 United Kingdom Census found nineteen,803,022 women and 18,082,220 men in England and Wales, a deviation of 1.72 million which newspapers called the "Surplus Two 1000000".^{[31] : 22–23} In the 1921 census in that location were 1,209 unmarried women anile 25 to 29 for every 1,000 men. In 1931 50% were nevertheless single, and 35% of them did not marry while still able to conduct children.^{[ citation needed ]}

As early equally 1923, Stanley Baldwin recognized a new strategic reality that faced United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland in a disarmament speech. Poison gas and the aerial bombing of civilians were new developments of the First World War. The British noncombatant population, for many centuries, had non had any serious reason to fear invasion. So the new threat of toxicant gas dropped from enemy bombers excited a grossly exaggerated view of the civilian deaths that would occur on the outbreak of whatsoever future war. Baldwin expressed this in his argument that "The bomber will always go through." The traditional British policy of a residue of power in Europe no longer safeguarded the British home population.

1 gruesome reminder of the sacrifices of the generation was the fact that this was i of the commencement times in international conflict whereby more men died in battle than from affliction, which was the primary cause of deaths in about previous wars.

This social trauma made itself manifest in many unlike means. Some people were revolted by nationalism and what they believed it had caused, so they began to piece of work toward a more than internationalist world through organizations such as the League of Nations. Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only armed services strength could be relied upon for protection in a chaotic and inhumane world that did not respect hypothetical notions of civilization. Certainly a sense of disillusionment and pessimism became pronounced. Nihilism grew in popularity. Many people believed that the war heralded the end of the earth equally they had known it, including the collapse of capitalism and imperialism. Communist and socialist movements effectually the world drew strength from this theory, enjoying a level of popularity they had never known earlier. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or particularly harshly affected by the war, such as central Europe, Russian federation and France.

Artists such as Otto Dix, George Grosz, Ernst Barlach, and Käthe Kollwitz represented their experiences, or those of their society, in blunt paintings and sculpture. Similarly, authors such as Erich Maria Remarque wrote grim novels detailing their experiences. These works had a strong touch on society, causing a dandy deal of controversy and highlighting conflicting interpretations of the state of war. In Deutschland, nationalists including the Nazis believed that much of this work was degenerate and undermined the cohesion of society as well as dishonoring the dead.

Iron harvest World War I ordnance left beside a field for disposal by the army in 2004 near Ypres in Belgium

Remains of ammunition [edit]

Throughout the areas where trenches and fighting lines were located, such every bit the Champagne region of French republic, quantities of unexploded ordnance have remained, some of which remain dangerous, standing to cause injuries and occasional fatalities in the 21st century. Some are found past farmers ploughing their fields and have been called the iron harvest. Some of this ammunition contains toxic chemical products such equally mustard gas. Cleanup of major battlefields is a continuing task with no terminate in sight for decades to come. Squads remove, defuse or destroy hundreds of tons of unexploded armament from both World Wars every year in Belgium, France, and Germany.^[32]

Memorials [edit]

War memorials [edit]

Many towns in the participating countries have state of war memorials defended to local residents who lost their lives. Examples include:

• Australian War Memorial, Canberra, Commonwealth of australia
• Liberty Memorial, Kansas City, Missouri, United states
• Memorial for The Battle of Jutland, Thyborøn, Jutland, Kingdom of denmark
• District of Columbia State of war Memorial, Washington, DC, United states
• Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial
• The Cenotaph, London, United Kingdom
• Menin Gate Memorial, Ypres, Belgium
• Thiepval Memorial
• Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing at Passchendaele
• Verdun Memorial Museum
• Vimy Ridge Memorial, Vimy, France
• Gallipoli Memorial, Turkey
• Shrine of Remembrance, Melbourne, Commonwealth of australia
• Irish National War Memorial Gardens, Dublin, Ireland
• Island of Republic of ireland Peace Park, Messines, Belgium
• National State of war Memorial, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
• National War Memorial, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
• Kriegerdenkmal auf dem Neroberg,^[33] Wiesbaden, Hessen, Germany
• Sacrario militare di Redipuglia, Fogliano Redipuglia, Italy
• Mausoleum of Mărășești, Romania

Tombs of unknown soldiers [edit]

The Amar Jawan Jyoti (the flame of the immortal warrior) in Delhi, India

• Monument to the Unknown Hero, Belgrade, Serbia
• Amar Jawan Jyoti, New Delhi, India
• Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
• Arc de Triomphe, Paris, French republic
• The Tomb of the Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey, London, United Kingdom
• Tomb of the Unknowns, Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, United States
• Tomba del milite ignoto, Rome, Italy
• Australian State of war Memorial, Canberra, Australia
• New Zealand Tomb of the Unknown Warrior, Wellington, New Zealand
• Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Syntagma Square, Athens, Greece
• Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Bucharest, Romania
• Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Batalha Monastery, Batalha, Portugal

See also [edit]

• International relations (1919–1939)
• Revolutions of 1917–1923
• Interwar catamenia
• Political history of the world

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Asmuss, Burkhard (November two, 2000). "Die Lebensmittelversorgung" [The Food Supply]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Archived from the original on ii November 2000. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
2. ^ Howard, N. P. (April 1993). "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-xix" (PDF). German History. 11 (2): 161–188. doi:ten.1093/gh/11.2.161 – via libcom.org.
3. ^ Marks, Emerge (1986). "1918 and After: The Postwar Era". In Martel, Gordon (ed.). The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered. Boston: Allen & Unwin. p. 19. ISBN0-04-940084-3.
4. ^ Gläser (1998). The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment Later on 75 Years. New York: Cambridge Academy Printing. pp. 388–391. ISBN0-521-62132-1.
5. ^ Germany. Gesundheits-Amt. Schaedigung der deutschen Volkskraft durch die feindliche Blockade. Denkschrift des Reichsgesundheitsamtes, Dezember 1918. (Parallel English translation) Injuries inflicted to the German language national forcefulness through the enemy occludent. Memorial of the German Board of Public Health, 27 December 1918 [Berlin, Reichsdruckerei,]The report notes on page 17 that the figures for the second half of 1918 were estimated based on the kickoff one-half of 1918.
6. ^ "The Blockade of Deutschland". The National Archives. United Kingdom.
7. ^ New-York Tribune 1919, p. 26.
8. ^ ^ Connor, Steve, "Flu epidemic traced to Great War transit military camp", The Guardian (U.k.), Saturday, 8 January 2000. Accessed 2009-05-09. Archived xi May 2009.
9. ^ NAP ^{[ permanent expressionless link ]}
10. ^ Kamps, Bernd Sebastian; Reyes-Terán, Gustavo. Influenza Volume. Influenza Study. Flying Publisher. ISBNthree-924774-51-10.
11. ^ Handwerk, Brian (v October 2005). "'Bird Flu' Similar to Deadly 1918 Influenza, Gene Study Finds". National geographic. Archived from the original on 31 October 2005.
12. ^ Mark Mazower, "Minorities and the League of Nations in interwar Europe." Daedalus 126.two (1997): 47–63. in JSTOR
13. ^ Table IV (folio 441) of The Economics of Aggrandizement past Costantino Bresciani-Turroni, published 1937.
14. ^ Marsha Fifty. Rozenblit (2004). Reconstructing a National Identity: The Jews of Habsburg Austria During Globe State of war I. Oxford UP. p. 163. ISBN9780195176308.
15. ^ "ყარსის ხელშეკრულება" [Treaty of Kars]. www.amsi.ge (in Russian). 13 October 1921. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
16. ^ "Atatürk and the Turkish Nation". Country Studies. U.S. Library of Congress.
17. ^ Fromkin, David (1989). A Peace to End All Peace: Creating the Modern Centre E 1914–1922. New York: H. Holt. p. 565. ISBN0-8050-0857-8.
18. ^ "RP 99-020.pdf" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-19. Retrieved 2006-02-19 .
19. ^ Taylor, A. J. P. (1976). English History, 1914–1945. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN0-xix-821715-3.
20. ^ Taylor, A. J. P. (1976). English language History, 1914–1945. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 122. ISBN0-19-821715-iii.
21. ^ Barnett, Correlli (2002). The Collapse of British Power. London: Pan. pp. 424 and 426. ISBN0-330-49181-four.
22. ^ Kuhlman, Erika A., Of Lilliputian Comfort. 2012. pp. 120–121.
23. ^ Roberts, Mary Louise (1994). Civilisation without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917-1927. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-72127-ix. OCLC 368265682.
24. ^ Roberts, Mary Louise (1994). Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917-1927. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-72127-9. OCLC 368265682.
25. ^ Roberts, Mary Louise (1994). Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917-1927. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-72127-9. OCLC 368265682.
26. ^ Roberts, Mary Louise (1994). Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar French republic, 1917-1927. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-72127-9. OCLC 368265682.
27. ^ Roberts, Mary Louise (1994). Civilisation without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917-1927. Chicago: University of Chicago Printing. ISBN978-0-226-72127-9. OCLC 368265682.
28. ^ But maybe the major hindrance to Italy'due south aims were the different opinions of Orlando and Sonnino: the offset was decided to obtain Fiume and forsake Dalmatia, Sonnino did not hateful to abandon Dalmatia and would have willingly left Fiume. This indecision proved fatal for Italia, which did not gain either of the territories.
29. ^ (Jackson, 1938)
30. ^ Stephen G. Craft, "John Bassett Moore, Robert Lansing, and the Shandong Question." Pacific Historical Review 66.2 (1997): 231–249. online
31. ^ ^{a b} Nicholson, Virginia (2008). Singled Out: How Ii Meg British Women Survived Without Men After the First World State of war. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-xix-537822-1.
32. ^ Neiberg, Michael (2007). The World State of war I Reader. p. 1.
33. ^ "Neroberg war memorial 1914-1918". www.werkost.com.

• New-York Tribune (November 9, 1919). "Where the fighting still goes on". New-York Tribune. New York, New York: New York Tribune. pp. i–86. ISSN 1941-0646. OCLC 9405688. Retrieved November ten, 2019.

Farther reading [edit]

• Aldcroft, Derek Howard. Europe'due south third world: the European periphery in the interwar years (2006).
• Blom, Philipp. Fracture: Life and Culture in the West, 1918–1938 (2015).
• Cornelissen, Christoph, and Arndt Weinrich, eds. Writing the Great War - The Historiography of World War I from 1918 to the Nowadays (2020) free download; total coverage for major countries.
• Gerwarth, Robert. "The central European counter-revolution: Paramilitary violence in Deutschland, Austria and Hungary after the great war." Past & Present 200.1 (2008): 175-209. online

• MacMillan, Margaret. Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Briefing of 1919 and Its Effort to End War (2001)
• Kallis, Aristotle. "When fascism became mainstream: the challenge of extremism in times of crisis." Fascism iv.1 (2015): one–24.
• Mazower, Marking. Dark continent: Europe'due south twentieth century (2009).
• Mowat, C.L. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of Globe Forces, 1898–1945 (1968) online 25 chapters; 845pp
• Overy, R. J. The Inter-War Crisis (2nd ed. 2016) extract
• Somervell, D.C. The Reign of King George V (1936) online 550pp; wide ranging political, social and economical coverage of Britain, 1910–35
• John Wheeler-Bennett The Wreck of Reparations, being the political background of the Lausanne Agreement, 1932 New York, H. Fertig, 1972.

External links [edit]

• Mail-war, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the Outset Earth War.
• Kitchen, James E.: Colonial Empires later the War/Decolonization, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the Get-go World War.
• Bessel, Richard: Mail-war Societies, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the Offset World War.
• Rothermund, Dietmar: Post-war Economies, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the Showtime World State of war.
• Abrupt, Alan: The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the Start Globe War.
• FirstWorldWar.com "A multimedia history of Globe State of war I"
• The war to end all wars on BBC site
• "The Heritage of the Great War"
• The British Army in the Great War

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I

Posted by: johnsonaceis1957.blogspot.com

Share this post